In the study and practice of international relations, there are two main dominant theories through which the nature and contexts of relations between states are analysed. The two are liberalism or neoliberalism and realism or neorealism. However, the two theories of liberal internationalism and realism or neo-realism are also challenged by quite a few other schools of thought. Among these are Rationalism, Marxism, Postmodernism, Feminism, Constructivism, etc. Chiefly, neoliberalism argues that the sphere of international relations is no longer a terrain exclusively dominated by states interests only, there are other players such as non-state actors that also play an influential and critical role in shaping the agenda of international conferences and their protocols, agreements, or resolutions that are adopted as outcomes.

The neorealist theory on the other hand, maintains the traditional view of the conventional realist school that states are still the dominant players that determine and decide the international agenda. Realist theory adherents use events such as the ongoing conflicts in many parts of the world to buttress their arguments. It is indeed difficult to dismiss this view considering the far-reaching impacts of the wars in Europe between Ukraine and Russia, in the Middle East between Israel and Palestine, in Africa both intra-state conflicts (which are also influenced by foreign interests) and inter-state tensions, and other parts of the world.

It is important to explicitly state from the onset that non-state actors are not a monolithic group of companies, individuals, or organisations. It is in reality, a combination of non-profit organisations, for-profit organisations, interest groups, national and international non-governmental organisations, public benefit organisations, humanitarian organisations, and many more. All these organisations have their defined interests, priorities, and agendas. For instance, Doctors Without Borders define their mission as a global network of principled medical and other professionals who specialise in medical humanitarian work, driven by a common humanity and guided by medical ethics.

Non-state actors are established to pursue and drive an agenda that is either aligned or in some instances, opposed to the government or state agenda or even complementing it. It is therefore not a foregone conclusion that a non-state actor by virtue of its status as “independent” from the government, pursues an anti-government agenda. At times, loyalty to the organisation’s agenda is opposed to the state’s agenda, but internationally, the organisation may take a stance that protects its home country’s interests however these are defined. In the case of South Africa, an influential and globally acclaimed humanitarian organisation, the Gift-of-the-Givers, has a different but complementary approach to the government in providing services to the needy communities and vulnerable groups affected by calamities. However, internationally, the organisation coordinates its efforts closely with the government to ensure that the South African flag, thus, the state, is well recognised and acknowledged for its cooperative efforts with it.

Admittedly, non-state actors, whether multinational corporations or non-profit organisations such as research and think-tanks like the American Council on Foreign Relations, have been playing very active and influential roles in shaping public policies across the globe through their research work, publications, workshops, and conferences open to international audience and speakers. Participants in these events are representatives of various stakeholders in the public sector, private sector, and generally, civil society. The role and influence of the non-state actors in international relations is, therefore, not a 21st century invention nor a novelty in the field. What is in fact observable in this century, is the growing influence, scope, and intensity of the role the non-state actors play in the international relations space which was traditionally states only affair.

In recognising the role and persuasive influence of non-state actors, the United Nations and its recognised regional organisations have created various platforms to accommodate, consult, and welcome inputs on substantive public policy matters from these formations. As early as the year 2000, at the turn of the century, the Cotonou Agreement, with its latest revision done in 2010, signed between the European Commission and the African, Pacific and Caribbean Countries (ACP), states in Article 4 that, parties to this agreement ought to inform and involve non-state actors in consultation on cooperation policies and strategies, on priorities for cooperation especially in areas that concern or directly affect them, and on the political dialogue, including providing them with opportunities for capacity-building and financial support to deliver public services where they have a comparative advantage.

Recently, in 2023, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and its partners developed a document entitled “Strengthening Transparency of Non-State Actors: How national experiences and new digital technologies can strengthen the Transparency efforts of non-state actors". One of the declared objectives of the document is to capitalise on the experiences and expertise of non-state actors at national level in order to promote and improve transparency at international level in relation to public policy discourses and outcomes thereof. Particular focus in this particular initiative is on the Paris Agreement on Climate Change. There are many other instances where the UN system has embraced inclusive participation of non-state actors.

Beyond the UN system, the African Union has developed a framework to ensure full participation of the non-state actors, which is called The Comprehensive African Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP). The latter is the continental development model for agriculture-led socio-economic growth aimed at creating shared wealth to alleviate poverty and hunger. The continental organisation admits that, by its nature, the agricultural sector is broad, thus, it is important to embrace non-state actors such as farmers, agribusinesses, producer organisations, and civil society organisations (CSOs).

Though there are recognisable, tangible, and positive contributions of the non-state actors in international relations, it is also important to highlight the challenges as well. Among these is the role some non-state actors play in disturbing or put bluntly, sabotaging, international peace and development of states. Non-state actors operating in the defence and security sector such as rebel groups, terrorists organisations, mercenaries, pirates, all play a negative and destructive role in the international arena. Many parts of the world especially in Africa are going through political turmoil because of these organisations which pursue agendas that are competing and vehemently opposed to some state regimes. Ordinary and innocent people become casualties of the clandestine operations of these actors whose interest is either to counter the agenda of some states or to bring about regime change or a revolution. Some examples include Al Shabaab, Al Qaeda, M23 in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and many others.

Some non-state actors are established within national territories as a response to the failures of the government to either provide basic services to certain parts of the country or segments of the population. Once the non-state actors fail to achieve their national political goals of inclusion and integration into the national or federal system, they then seek support and solidarity from outside the country to bolster their capacities to challenge the state power or government policy. In the 21st century, with widespread access to information and relatively easy international communication through global networks dominated by internet access, it is easy for non-state actors to organise and mobilise international support. In 2012 the world experienced the Arab Spring that was ignited by youth activists, what happened thereafter in the north Africa or Maghreb region is now history.

In view of the recent developments in the twenty-first century building on the previous momentum acquired in the preceding century, there is no doubt that the role and influence of non-state actors in international relations is growing in both scope and intensity. What remains to be seen is whether the states as the main actors at the centre stage will continue embracing them or will be cautious about the role of non-state actors, or still, will decide which forums and issues they get to contribute to. What is undeniable though is that the non-state actors continue to multiply and diversify their involvement and participation in inter-state affairs. They do this in various formats and structures either as active formally accredited participants or on the sidelines as lobbyists and pressure groups, or in the case of defence and security sector, through covert operations.

Critical questions that ought to be answered include whether the increasing influence of non-state actors is an admission by states that their efforts alone are inadequate in addressing pressing developmental challenges or promoting globally shared interests and/or mitigating conflicts? Put differently, is the accommodation of non-state actors a recognition or admission of competing interests at the state level which makes it difficult for states to unequivocally claim to represent their entire populations or all sectors of society? Could it be that non-state actors are established and funded by some states to push their agendas through them under the guise of political neutrality?

To answer the above questions, one needs to study and understand the modus operandi of the non-state actors and the interests they advance in global fora. In the twenty-first century, a clear trend is observable that in almost all multilateral forums, climate change and its purported negative effects is the foremost issue for some developed countries. Intimately linked to climate change is the discourse on energy transition from green gas to renewable sources. The non-state actors play critical roles in advancing this agenda. It must be stated that some of the non-state actors are not championed by ordinary citizens, they are led by former statesmen and women who once occupied prominent political positions in their countries. Some of these high-profile figures run their own foundations which also play influential roles in shaping the agenda of international conferences.

Examples of non-state actors led by high-profile individuals include the Eminent Persons Group (EPG) of the Commonwealth, which promotes cooperation among Commonwealth nations in various fields such as trade, human rights, political and civil rights, environmental issues, development assistance, etc. Given the growing influence and number of non-state actors, the twenty-first century is already witnessing noticeable paradigm shifts in how global public policy discussions are conducted. However, a fundamental question that needs close interrogation and investigation is whether the participation of non-state actors contributes to bringing about the desired tangible outcomes when the international policies are localised and harmonised at national level.

Undeniably, some of the non-state actors play a role of a watch-dog whereas others actively participate in the implementation of government and international agreements. Perhaps this is determined by the context and complexity of the issues at hand, and the political and ideological orientation of the non-state actor concerned.