In the first article of this series, I provided a brief historical overview of the Neo-Assyrian, Urartian, and Achaemenid empires, and introduced three prominent symbols frequently found in cylinder seal iconography: the winged disk, fish, and crescent moon. In the second article, I presented three case studies of cylinder seals featuring these symbols: one unearthed by a Grand Tour explorer in Ottoman Iraq, another currently housed in the Met in New York, and a third excavated from the ancient site of Gordion. This third article will build upon the previous two parts by investigating the iconography of these seals in greater depth. It will explore whether the symbols found on these seals indicate political affiliation, trade relationships, cultural exchange, or other forms of interaction among these ancient empires. By examining the nuances of these icons and their contexts, we can shed light on the complex web of connections that these artifacts reveal.

Now that we have looked at all three seals, we can ask: affiliation or cultural exchange? Does the iconography of each seal indicate the owner’s desire to show their allegiance to the Assyrians, or do these crescents, fish, and winged disks just represent a natural result of cultural exchange across a diverse region?

In the case of the first seal, found by Keppel at ancient Babylon, the most likely conclusion is that the seal simply benefitted from the Assyrian cultural tradition, which influenced the initial carving and placement of the crescent and fish. The winged disk, on the other hand, was probably added after the seal’s carving, to indicate the owner’s Assyrian allegiance. This is evidenced mainly by the haphazard inclusion of the winged disk squished between the two heads of figures which were plainly carved beforehand. Also, considering the findspot of the seal in Babylon and the dating of it to the first half of the first millennium BCE, it’s relatively safe to say that the choice of symbolism resulted from a combination of conspicuous diplomacy and inevitable cultural exchange.

The second seal, originating from Urartu, is carved in a style reminiscent of Assyrian seals but does not feature any distinctly Assyrian icons. The only symbol that might be considered ‘Assyrian’ is the crescent moon, which we have established was a common icon not exclusive to the Assyrian Empire. The Kingdom of Urartu, located in the mountainous region around Lake Van (modern-day Turkey), was a formidable power in the Near East from the 9th to 6th centuries BCE, contemporaneous with the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Despite their frequent conflicts, the two cultures influenced each other significantly.

The archaeologist Leonard Woolley (1961: 173) has pointed out that Urartu’s “outstanding works are individual… [but they were also] perfectly ready to borrow popular motives. The shields of King Argisti found at Karmir-Blur with their concentric rows of animals might have been copied from, but might equally well have inspired, the Ionian shields carried by Greek mercenaries into Syria and Anatolia.” Like the Neo-Assyrians themselves, Urartu was engaged in an extensive network of cultural exchange and borrowing. Consequently, it is likely that the seal’s iconography was influenced by foreign imagery imported into the empire.

Additionally, due to the recurring and devastating conflicts between the Urartian and Assyrian empires, it may not have been prudent to reflect Assyrian affiliation on such a public object, making it less likely that this was a deliberate move to indicate foreign sympathies. Even in times of stability and relative peace, Urartu and Assyria were regional rivals, making imperial allegiance a key marker of identity.

Similarly, the Achaemenid seal discovered at the site of Gordion likely did not represent imperial affiliation, though it does indicate the appropriation of some Assyrian imagery. Phrygia had been absorbed as a province of the Achaemenid, or first Persian Empire under its founding ruler Cyrus the Great. Unlike the Babylonian seal, much of the iconography of the seal from Gordion aligns with typical Achaemenid traditions. The winged disk is the only symbol that does not entirely fit within this tradition, suggesting that its inclusion resulted from interregional cultural exchange.

This reflects the Achaemenid practice of incorporating and adapting elements from various cultures within their vast empire. While not as central to Achaemenid iconography as it was in Assyrian art, the symbol did appear in Achaemenid contexts. In the Achaemenid Empire, the winged disk was sometimes used in royal and ceremonial contexts. It can be found in some Achaemenid reliefs and art, often integrated with other elements of Achaemenid style and symbolism. It is important to note that while the winged disk was present, it was not as dominant or defining a symbol in Achaemenid art as it was in Assyrian iconography.

Another notable example of cultural assimilation is seen in the use of lamassu at the Gate of All Nations in Persepolis, the Achaemenid capital (André-Salvini 2005: 54). Persepolis was the ceremonial capital of the Achaemenid Empire and served as a central hub for royal ceremonies and state affairs. Lamassu, depicted in monumental architectural sculptures, typically have the body of a lion or bull, representing strength and stability; they are adorned with powerful wings, symbolizing divine protection and the ability to ward off evil.

These figures, originally Assyrian, were adopted by the Persians to serve the same protective function they held in their native context. The Achaemenid artistic tradition incorporated a diverse range of symbols from various cultures within their empire, including local traditions and influences from conquered regions. Similarly, the seal from Gordion likely illustrates how the Achaemenids embraced and repurposed iconography from different regions under their control.

Cylinder seals were ubiquitous in the ancient Near East, and the designs carved on them identified their owner and ensured confidentiality and limited access to restricted documents. But they also inadvertently betray certain details of the context in which they were created. This article series has presented a brief survey of three different cylinder seals coming from various empires, with varying relationships to the Neo-Assyrians. The aim of this investigation has been to study—with some brevity—the influence of the Assyrian artistic canon on seals from elsewhere in the region and later in the Iron Age Near East.

The first seal, discovered at Babylon in 1824, may have been owned by a man who used the extra space between two figures’ heads to squeeze in a winged disk and indicate his Assyrian allegiance. The second seal, from the kingdom of Urartu, shows evidence of Assyrian influence and stylistic similarities. And the third and final seal, discovered at Gordion in 1953, features a winged disk with the same implication as the Babylonian seal, indicating the continuity of the Assyrian artistic tradition. Through these relationships we can consider the role Assyrian imagery may have played for non-Assyrian seals. Whether to indicate one’s affiliation or allegiance to the Assyrian empire (or Neo-Assyrian community) or simply as a consequence of the empire’s integrated cultural tradition, it is clear that crescents, fish, and winged disks have deeper meanings than what first appears.

On the inevitability of cultural exchange between empires, Durant (1935: 264) writes:

Through Assyria’s conquest of Babylon, her appropriation of the ancient city’s culture, and her dissemination of that culture throughout her wide empire; through the long captivity of the Jews, and the great influence upon them of Babylonian life and thought; through the Persian and Greek conquests which then opened with unprecedented fullness and freedom all the roads of communication and trade between Babylon and the rising cities of Ionia, Asia Minor, and Greece – through these and many other ways the civilization of the Land between the Rivers passed down into the cultural endowment of our race. In the end nothing is lost; for good or evil, every event has effects forever.

Indeed, cultural exchange is viewed generally as an inevitable and irreversible process “for good or evil”. Attempting to understand this process can lead to new revelations about ancient civilizations that can help us better understand the spatial flow of material culture today. These revelations would necessarily have a rippling effect on politics, trade, and other aspects of society and culture.

Notes

1 André-Salvini, B. 2005. Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia. Berkeley: University of California Press.
2 Durant, W. 1935. The Complete Story of Civilization: Our Oriental Heritage. New York: Simon and Schuster.
3 Woolley, L. 1961. The Art of The Middle East, including Persia, Mesopotamia and Palestine. New York: Crown Publishers.